The question of semantic connections between Early Christian funerary art and texts of Early Christian prayer for the dead – Ordo commendationis animae – remains controversial. Some scholars endorse the idea that iconographic programs of Roman catacombs and Early Christian sarcophagy can be traced back to the prayer. Others highlight the distinctions between them, emphasizing, that the oldest text of the Ordo commendationis animae cannot be dated earlier than the 4^th century. Both the prayer and the funerary art embody the same themes of salvation and resurrection, often depicted through shared biblical heroes and narratives. Although there are inconsistencies between the biblical heroes mentioned in the prayer and the most popular characters and narratives in Early Christian art, the semantic parallels cannot be simply dismissed. This research seeks to uncover the origins of the prayer itself and propose liturgical sources that could have influenced regional traditions of Early Christian funerary iconography. Additionally, it hypothesizes explanations for the iconographic principles of several renowned Early Christian monuments.

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The semantic association between the imagery of Early Christian funerary art and the texts of Early Christian prayer for the dead – Ordo commendationis animae – has a rich history of research. E. le Blant, followed by H. Leclercq and other scholars, argued that the parallels between the characters and episodes depicted in the art and those reference in the prayer could not be merely coincidental [Blant 1878; Carbol, Leclercq, 1907, p. 435]. However, the debate over a direct link between the prayer and funerary pictorial programs continues. The earliest known text of the Ordo commendationis animae cannot be dated before the 4th century [Jensen, 2000, p. 71; Martimort, 1949, p. 105]. Furthermore, the overlap between the two is far from perfect. R. M. Jensen argues that certain figures from the prayer, such as Enoch, Elijah, Lot and Thecla, do not appear in catacomb painting, while the most commonly depicted narratives and characters in Roman funerary art are absent from the prayer [Jensen, 2000, p. 71]. The text of the prayer itself is a topic of debate. It remains unclear if Jonah, a prominent Old Testament figure in Early Christian art, was mentioned in the 4th century version. The text published by H. Leclercq in his dictionary omits the rebellious prophet, leading many scholars to conclude that the story of Jonah was a later addition to the prayer [Jensen, 2000, p. 71; Stroumsa-Uzan, 2008, p. 56; Mitius, 1897, p. 90]. Presently, neither viewpoint can be definitively rejected due to a lack of substantial evidence. And yet, the semantic parallels cannot be easily ignored. If the Ordo commendationis animae was not the source for the earliest catacomb paintings, then what could have served as such? Both the prayer and the funerary art convey the same themes of salvation and resurrection through the narratives of the same Biblical heroes.
When considering the potential influence of the Ordo commendationis animae on funerary art, researchers often focus on the art of Rome and nearby provinces. This likely stems from the Latin language of the prayer, suggesting its use in Latin-speaking regions. No known versions of the Ordo commendationis exist in other languages that can be dated by the 3rd–4th centuries. However, painted tombs and mausoleums are also preserved in other regions, notably Northern Greece and Egypt. Their pictorial programs generally share significant similarities with the Roman paintings. On the other hand, some striking distinctions between these and Roman works are quite telling. Roman catacomb paintings and carved sarcophagi frequently depict Jonah, while Thecla is absent. In contrast, the Thessalonian tombs never reference Jonah, but at least one known depiction of Thecla is preserved. The pictorial programs of Early Christian mausoleums in the Bagawat necropolis (Kharga oasis, Egypt) routinely feature various episodes involving Thecla, yet they completely lack the New Testament scenes.
The semantic relationship between the Early Christian prayers and art might also shed light on the pictorial program of the baptistery of the Domus eclessiae in Dura Europos. Although it's not a funerary site, its composition includes similar scenes seen in funerary monuments. The particular selection of scenes is rather enigmatic. Given the early dating of the paintings (253 AD is their terminus ante quem and ca 232 is their estimated date according the Yale University Art Gallery and the Metropolitan Museum), and Dura Europos distance from major Early Christian cultural centers, it seems unlikely that the baptistery's artists had access to other Early Christian painted monuments for inspiration. In the absence of visual models, they might have turned to Early Christian texts or liturgical practices. R. M. Jensen concures that it may have had liturgical parallels, and, citing V. Schultze, refers to the book V of the Apostolic Constitutions, which mentions both the Old and New Testaments episodes [Schultze, 1919; Jensen, 2000, p. 71-72]. However, the timeline doesn't align, as the Constitutions were written in Syria around 380 AD [Britannica, Apostolic Constitutions]. The first six books are adaptations of the Didascalia apostolorum, penned in the mid-3rd century,¹ but the list of characters in the Didascalia is limited to a handful of Old Testament heroes.

The Orationes pseudocyprianae
The hypothesis that the Ordo commendationis animae and other Early Christian texts could have served as “guidelines” for pictorial programs is a valid one. H. Leclercq was the first scholar to identify the so-called Orationes pseudocyprianae as a predecessor of the Ordo Commendationis animae [Carbol, Leclercq, 1907, pp. 430-435]. He also argued that the Early Christian prayer for the dead could have evolved from Jewish prayers, in particularly the Mi she’anah [Carbol, Leclercq, 1907, pp. 437-438], a repetitive invocation mentioning multiple Biblical characters.
The prayer begins with the words, “He who answered Abraham on Mount Moriah, He will answer you and hear the sound of your cry on this day”.² An early version of the Mi she’anah is included in the second order of the Mishnah (Moed), which concerns ceremonies, rituals, observances, and prohibitions related to the Sabbath, religious festivals, and fast days [Ta'anit 2: 2-4]. The codification took final form early in the early 3rd century AD.³ The Mishnah version refers to just seven Biblical heroes, not all of whom are mentioned in the Ordo Commendationis Animae. Later Mi she’anah versions encompass a broad list of biblical characters.

The structure of the Jewish prayer could have influenced Early Christian prayers, including those for the dead. The adaptation could have occured in any major city with mixed Greek and Jewish or Latin and Jewish populations, such as, for instance, Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Carthage, and Sardis. These cities witnessed the extensive Jewish emigration post 117 AD [Kerkeslager et als, 2008, pp. 67-68 ; 76]. Further indications suggest that the Orationes Pseudocyprianae can be traced back to Jewish prayers. Attributed to Cyprian of Antioch, they were translated from Greek to Latin at the turn of 4th century [Cabrol, Leclerq, 1907, pp. 429-430; Sicard, 1978, pp. 366-367; Velazquez, 2006, p. 53 ; Gomez-Narros, 2015, p. 90; Pinar, Turell, 2007, p. 145]. H. Leclercq highlights that the initial invocation «Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος» in the Oratio pro martyribus [Migne, 1844, pp. 905] originates from the Greek version of the prayer [Carbol, Leclercq, 1907, pp. 432]. The invocation forms an integral part of the Christian liturgy and is central part to the “Thrice-Holy” hymn. However, its roots lie in Jewish liturgical traditions. The acclamation originates in the Old Testament, specifically in the book of Isaiah [Isaiah 6:3], where the seraphims around God’s throne cry out: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts the whole earth is full of his glory.” As Early Christian liturgy developed within the context of first-century Judaism, many facets of Jewish worship, including this invocation, were integrated into Christian prayer.
The Latin text of the Oratio sub die suae passionis also preserves the same Greek word, along with the Latin invocation [Migne (ed), 1844, p. 905]. During the early Christian era, Greek was the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean world, hence its usage was natural choice the writing down and preservation of Christian prayers. Scholars do not dispute the Antiochene origin of the Orationes Pseudocyprianae, thus, the original Greek language of the prayers looks logical. Translated into Latin at the start of the 4th century, the Greek versions are likely to had been composed in the 3rd century, making them contemporaneous with the early days of Early Christian art.
While the Orationes were not exactly the prayers for the dead, their dedication to martyrs linked them to themes of martyrdom, salvation and resurrection. The Oratio pro martyribus addresses both God the Father and Christ, mentioning Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Daniel, Tobias and Sarah, three youths in the fiery furnace, persecuted Paul, Peter in the waves and Thecla in the fire. This is a shorter list of heroes compared to those mentioned in the Ordo commendationis animae. The prayer also references several salvation episodes such as the cure of a leper, the healing of the blind and paralyzed, and resurrection of the dead. While the healing of the blind and paralyzed can be directly paralleled with the New Testament scenes in Early Christian art, the Resurrection of Lazarus and Job could visualize the theme of resurrection and the miracle of the cure of a leper.
The God is referred to as the God of martyrs, prophets, apostles and virgins, thereby extending the range of characters included in the Prayer. All these characters were featured in Early Christian art. The prayer also refers to Christ's birth “ex Mariae virginis utero per mysterium” [Migne (ed), 1844, pp. 905], indicating that as early as in the 3rd century some prayers could have inspired the visualization of New Testament episodes related to the birth of Jesus, such as the Nativity and the Adoration of Magi.
The Oratio Quam sub die passionis suae dixit has a tripartite structure. The brief first part describes God the father in a manner similar to the Oratio pro martyribus (the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, apostles, prophets, martyrs). The second part echoes the structure of the Mi she’ana and the Ordo commendationis animae. It consists of repeated invocations like “Would you hear me praying as you heard Jonah from the belly of the whale,”⁴ etc. This part mentions Israelites, Moses, Jonah, three youth in the fiery furnace, Daniel from the lions’ den, Susanna, Ezekiah, David, Tobias, Sarah and Thecla in the amphitheater. The third part is dedicated to Jesus. Here again, it is mentioned that he was born from Mary who received the annunciation message from Gabriel [Migne (ed), 1844, pp. 908]. This mention could have contributed another popular scene to the repertoire of Early Christian art, namely the Annunciation. The third part also refers to famous New Testament miracles – the healing of the blind, paralyzed and those possessed by demons, the healing of the bleeding woman, the resurrection of dead, water walking and the episode where Christ supported Peter walking on water.

The Oratio sub die passionis suae presents a broad list of biblical narratives and characters for visualization. The two orationes collectively almost encompass the repertoire of the most popular Early Christian scenes. Some characters are only mentioned by names, not tied to any particular episode. For instance, both orationes reference the generic miracle of resurrection, which could have left room for visual interpretation.
The textual structure of the Orationes and Ordo commendationis animae, along with the invocation formula “God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob” likely evolved from Jewish prayers. Justin Martyr (2nd AD) [Winden (ed), 1971, ch. 85] and Origen (first half of the 3rd AD) [Migne (ed) 1857, pp. 699-700] mentioned that this formula was highly prevalent, even in magical rituals. It also appears in the Syriac version of the Didascalia Apostolorum (Manasseh’s prayer) [Gibson (ed), 1907, p. 38]. However, the specific biblical episodes and heroes mentioned in Early Christian prayers have fewer parallels with Jewish prayers. The former focused on symbolic depictions of salvation, resurrection and blissful afterlife, possibly drawing inspiration from Patristic literature. H. Leclercq refers to the 1st century letter to Corinthians by Clement of Rome [Carbol, Leclercq, 1907, p. 435], which, apart from the characters listed in the Orationes and Ordo commendationis animae, mentions Adam and Jonah but never mentions Thecla and Susanna [Migne (ed), 1886, pp. 199-327]. Similarly, Origen in his treatise on prayer refers to almost the same list of biblical characters, adding Eve alongside Adam, but omitting Thecla and Susanna [Migne (ed), 1857, pp. 415-561].⁵ These two patristic treatises alone could have provided almost comprehensive range of the Old Testament episodes and heroes for both liturgical and artistic purposes, depending on the their symbolic significane. However, like Early Christian prayers, no Patristic text provides a complete list of the most popular heroes and scenes of Early Christian art. Early Christian art could draw from various sources, but the influence of prayer texts seems more prominent. While the Patristic literature required intellectual engagement, prayers were likely to be more accessible and easier to interpret. They provided a “short-list” of biblical characters and episodes related to the themes of salvation and resurrection. Further nuances could have been derived from Patristics, such as the theme of women's piety expressed through the parable of the wise virgins. If not directly from the Orationes and the Ordo commendationis animae, similar prayers could have influenced the repertoire of Early Christian art.

The crucial theme of a blissful afterlife in paradise seems to have been challenging to articulate verbally, for it is scarcely addressed in Early Christian texts. Therefore, its visualization necessitated the adaptation of several scenes from ancient funerary art: the shepherd as the Good Shepherd in a paradisiacal landscape, Endymion's sleep for the scene of Jonah's rest under the gourd vine, and Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides for the scene with Adam and Eve in paradise. Some motifs were also borrowed from ancient pagan art, such as the motif of the gourd wine, which originated from Alexandrian tomb paintings [Kuvatova, 2023, pp. 6-11]. At least one of these compositions appears in nearly every Early Christian iconographic program.
Many elements and themes of ancient funerary painting acquired new shades of meaning in early Christian art and became firmly entrenched in the new tradition. Images of birds drinking from a fountain, shepherds with flocks or carrying sheep on their shoulders, and floral motifs are among the most vivid examples of such appropriation. Recognizing that Early Christian funerary art served a specific function with its own means of expression, it could not restrict itself to a single source of themes and stories. Different regions might have preferred various prayer narratives. For instance, the presence of the rare scene of the Exodus in the Egyptian necropolis seems fitting, as does the scene of Thecla's conversation with Paul in Ephesus in Asia Minor. Some stories may have been chosen based on their visual expressiveness. For example, the scene of healing the paralytic, popular in almost all provinces, might have been selected for its iconographic vividness compared to other healings.
The comparative analysis of the aforementioned prayers and Patristic treatises reveals some patterns that may hold significance in the context of Early Christian art:

1. Only four biblical heroes/episodes consistently appear in all texts: Abraham, Isaac, Daniel and three youths in the fiery furnace.
2. In the Orationes Abraham and Isaac are addressed in the invocation to the Almighty, while Daniel and the three youths are mentioned among the salvation episodes.
3. Noah is mentioned in both treatises and the Ordo commendationis animae but is absent in the Orationes.
4. Jonah appears in the treatises and one of the Orationes but is omitted in the other one, as well as in the early text of the Ordo commendationis animae.
5. Thecla is mentioned in all three Early Christian prayers within different episodes. While Oratio sub die passionis suae recounts the episode in the amphitheater, the Oratio pro martyribus references Thecla in the fire. Both episodes of the saint’s passions were visualized in Early Christian art.
6. Only the Orationes focus closely on the miracles of Christ.
7. The Orationes address the stories of Annunciation to Mary and Jesus's birth.
8. Some heroes and miracles are not strictly contextualized, thus offering some flexibility to choose the most suitable episode. Both Orationes refer to the resurrection of the dead without specifying a particular story. Artists could have chosen the episode of Lazarus as the most vivid example of a resurrection miracle. The miracle of curing the leper (Oratio pro martyribus) could have been associated with the story of Job. David could have been depicted either playing among wild animals or confronting Goliath. The general mention of apostles, prophets, and virgins could have permitted for various interpretations. Although the Orationes never mention the Multiplication of Loaves, a popular scene in Early Christian art, they do refer to an episode from the Book of Daniel where the prophet Habbakuk brings food to Daniel. The narratives do not bear strong similarity, and yet there is a slight likelihood that this plot, by distant association, served as a prototype for the development of the scene of the Multiplication of Loaves.

Pictorial programs of the 3rd century
The earliest monuments of Early Christian art are especially illustrative in this regard. In the absence of typical pictorial programs to serve as models, the authors had to rely on verbal rather than visual sources. The program of the baptistery in Dura Europos, although not being a funerary monument, includes the same biblical narratives, but the selection appears unusual. A. Wharton argues that the stark stylistic differences between the procession of women and the biblical scenes arise from their specific functions – the former supporting rites, and the latter bearing symbolic and educational purposes [Wharton, 1995, p. 54]. She calls the interpretation of the procession "haptic", implying a more tangible nature of painting. The scenes does not illustrate biblical or apocryphal narratives but is directly related to the function of the Dura Europos baptistery and serves the purpose of supporting the baptism ritual. On the other hand, the remaining scenes are directly connected to biblical narratives and visualize their literal or symbolic significance.
Furthermore, the functions of the same early Christian narratives varied depending on the intended purpose of the monument. For instance, in the temple, the particular scene could serve an educational function, while in the mausoleum, it could serve a commemorative one [Kuvatova, 2022, p. 368].
The procession can't be unequivocally linked to any specific biblical story, and the selection of the educational scenes is somewhat perplexing. The extremely rare scene with Jesus supporting Peter on the water, and the composition with the woman at the well are tied to the function of the baptistery through the theme of water. (fig. 1, 2) However, the Healing of the Paralytic (fig. 3) and especially "David and Goliath" seem almost arbitrary. As every Early Christian paradigm is conveyed through several biblical stories simultaneously, it's practically impossible to select these particular four scenes from the broad range offered by the Bible and Patristics.
However, the primary selection is already evident in prayers, with each one manifesting these scenes in some manner. The unique pictorial program of the Dura Europos baptistery appears to correlate to a certain extant with the Orationes Pseudocyprianae. Given the probable Antiochene origin of the prayers, this correlation seems more plausible. One prayer mentions Peter in the waves, another one refers to the precise moment when Jesus supported Peter on water. The David and Goliath episode could have also been inspired by mention of the Jewish king in the Oratio sub die passionis suae. The specific episode from David’s life could have been dictated by the military character of Dura Europos [Peppard, 2016, pp. 21–22] and/or may have alluded to the victory of the baptized neophytes [Stoll, 2021, p. 20]. It is the only scene with an inscription, suggesting that, despite the familiar plot, the artist had no model and questioned its recognizability. The Healing of the Paralytic, a popular scene in the 3rd century Roman catacomb painting, is mentioned in both Orationes. In the baptistery context it could symbolize the full force attained by the baptized neophytes. Regardless of the reason behind this choice, the idea of incorporating the miracle into the pictorial program might have been inspired by prayers. Yet another scene of the Dura Europos program is not easily attributed to a specific biblical subject. A woman at a well is generally interpreted as the Samaritan [Kraeling, 1967, p. 68], though nothing in the iconography of the scene allows for a definitive conclusion. M. Peppard proposes an alternative interpretation based on the absence of Christ’s figure in the scene and the popularity in Eastern tradition of the iconographic type of the Annunciation at the well, as described in the Protoevangelium of James [Peppard, 2012, pp. 547-549]. The story of the encounter of the Samaritan woman and Christ is not very expressive and was seldom commented on by the Church Fathers. However, the Oratio sub die passionis suae mention an episode at a well or spring – the Annunciation. If the woman at the well is Mary, then the scene might have been well-known and not requiring captions.
One of the earliest Roman painted tombs, considered Christian by some scholars – the Clodius Hermes Mausoleum in the catacombs of San Sebastiano – dates back to the late 2nd – early 3rd century AD [Finney, 1994, p. 231]. The pictorial program of the mausoleum is extremely ambiguous. If the mausoleum belonged to Christians, then its program probably contained the earliest and most detailed depiction of the Healing of the possessed. The scene with multiple banquet tables might visualize the Cana marriage episode. Both stories are mentioned in the Orationes.
The 3rd century Roman funerary art primarily focused on Moses striking the rock, the Healing of the paralytic, the blindman and the bleeding woman, the Resurrection of Lazarus, Jonah cycle (fig. 4), Sacrifice of Abraham (fig. 5), Daniel in the lions’ den (fig. 6), and the New Testament episodes involving Mary. All these biblical heroes and episodes are mentioned in the Orationes. The scenes depicting women at wells and male figures are conventionally interpreted as the Samaritan at the well, although, in the absence of captions, it cannot be proved. As in the case with Dura Europos, they could be early iconographic type of the Annunciation, based on the Protoevangelium of James. For instance, a 5th century ivory diptych from Milan offers such an interpretation [Weitzmann, 1979, p. 543]. Male figures, interpreted as Jesus, could also symbolize an archangel. Until the end of the 4th century, angels were depicted without wings [Peers, 2001, p. 23].
Provincial funerary art
The funerary art of another major Early Christian cultural center – Thessaloniki – demonstrates a slightly different selection of themes. The catalogue of scenes is more limited than the Roman one. The funerary pictorial programs feature depictions of the Good Shepherd and Adam and Eve as the symbols of paradise, Daniel in the lions’ den, Sacrifice of Abraham, Noah, and occasionally the healings of the paralytic and the possessed as symbols of salvation, and the Resurrection of Lazarus as a symbol of resurrection (fig. 7). A new character appears in Thessaloniki, namely Thecla, who is mentioned in all three Early Christian prayers. The interest towards the saint is likely due to closer contacts with Eastern provinces where Thecla was extremely popular. In Thessaloniki, she is depicted in the fire. The episode is mentioned in the Oratio pro martyribus and is much less common than Thecla surrounded by wild animals.
The most notable characteristic of the Thessalonian art is the complete absence of the Jonah story. No scene from this cycle has been found to date. Given the poularity of the Jonah cycle in Roman art, it's unlikely that the Thessalonians were adhering to the Roman approach to pictorial programs. Alghough iconography of scenes in Roman and Thessalonian tombs bear silimarities, the content of the programs differ significantly. The simplified nature of the Thessalonian pictorial programs suggests that they couldn't have been derived from sophisticated works of the Church fathers, that also referenced the Jonah story. The Thessalonians seemed to rely on sources that did not mention Jonah, such as the Oratio pro martyribus and/or the Ordo commendationis animae.
Moving to another region – Upper Egypt – reveals more complex funeral pictorial programs. Early Christian Alexandrian tombs, or what remains of them, appear to contrast sharply with the provincial tradition. The Egyptian provincial funerary painting shows no inclination towards the New Testament whatsoever. Instead, it highlights the Old Testament scenes, such as the Sacrifice of Abraham, Daniel in the lions’ den, Noah in the Ark, Adam and Eve, and the Jonah cycle. Thecla was one of the most popular saints, depicted in various episodes – in the fire, among animals, conversing to Paul. The painted program of the so called Chapel of Exodus in Bagawat necropolis of Kharga oasis, dating back to the late 4th – 5th centuries, incorporated most characters mentioned in the Ordo commendationis animae plus Jonah, Rebecca at the well and the prophets Jeremiah and Isaiah. (fig. 8, 9)
This funerary program contrasts starkly with painted Coptic textiles, where New Testament episodes such as the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Adoration of Magi, healing miracles, and the Resurrection of Lazarus were quite common. It appears that funerary wall painting and textile painting drew from different sources. Some scholars propose that special papyrus drawings were used as models for producing Late Antique textiles, explaining their similar iconography and style across the Eastern provinces of the Empire [Elsner, 2020, p. 7-27; Raff, 2022, p. 12]. The approach to the pictorial programs of funerary art tended to be more specific. In Egypt it might have involved local prayers akin to the Ordo commendationis animae. Monasticism played a significant cultural role in Middle and Upper Egypt, and prayer was an integral part of monastic life.
In the Chapel of the Exodus, a unique character in Early Christian art – Moses' father-in-law, Jethro – is depicted in the Exodus scene. In the biblical text, Jethro stands out for delivering a brief prayer. The importance of prayer to the Christians of Kharga, along with the persistence of this tradition, is evident in another Bagawat mausoleum from a later period (around the 6th century) – the Chapel of Peace. Its iconographic program features Noah, Daniel, Abraham, Isaac and Sarah, Adam and Eve, James, Maria and Paul, Thecla and Paul, and the personification of prayer (Ευχή). (fig. 10)
Conclusions
The Early Christian funerary art evolved alongside theological development. During the formation of iconographic canons, Christianity was also seeking theological canons. The challenge of visualizing a sophisticated and flexible religious doctrine may have prompted the creators of iconographic programs to consult simpler and more explicit sources, such as Early Christian prayers.
Given its specific aims and means, Early Christian funerary art couldn't fully adhere to a single source, whether it was theology, liturgy, or ancient artistic heritage. Funerary painting programs partially relied on the texts of Early Christian prayers, especially those dedicated to the deceased and the martyrs. This appears logical since both convey the concepts of salvation and resurrection, communicated through the same biblical narratives. This assumption provides the most plausible explanation for the noticeable regional differences in the repertoire of Early Christian art, which is otherwise fairly homogeneous.